The Influence Of Tests On Teaching Backwash

The Influence Of Tests On Teaching laundryIn the field of foreign vocabulary training and discipline, there argon two kinds of opposed earns about the kindred in the midst of the words scrutinying and the lyric command. One side is that the phrase exam should be cognize as the supplementary means for the language inform. According to Davies (1968 5), the good attempt should follow and ape the educational natural action. This is a point of controversy to most of researchers and teachers. The other side asserts that the relationship between education and assaying is should regarded as resolvenership among each other. (Hughes, 2003 3) That is commonly accepted among many scholars and teachers. Moreover, the language test is expected to oblige the good teaching and git be used as the corrective resileion and direction to the bad teaching. Further practic all toldy, the influence of testing on teaching and encyclopedism is defined as viewing which send packing be all dear or harmful. (Hughes, 2003) Although, the test can tint the teaching on several(prenominal) aspects much(prenominal) as political program, materials, teaching method and content, attitude and behavior, and learn (Alderson Wall, 1993), the existence and the constitution of the influence would be affected few elements such as the teacher, the school, the test itself. (Spratt, 2005 Alderson Wall, 1993) Therefore, In addition, the existence and the nature of the consequence lead be different in various teaching and testing context as well. (Alderson Wall, 1993) In the first interrupt I show the complicated phenomenon of the language testing backwash in the language teaching generally.Specifically, there is a very close connection between the College incline TestCETand college side teaching in China. (Gu, 2005 Li, 2009 Ceng, 1999 Shao, 2003) The CET is proved that it is an effective means of measurement for its answer can accurately reflect the College face te aching and learning situation both of one university at different stages and different universities at the same stage. (Gu, 2005) With a great number of elements which can affect the CET and the college English teaching and learning, in second actuate of this quiz I discuss the existence and the nature of the CET backwash.However, there are a great many of helplessness which shouldnt be driped, it is eager to regain out some elbow rooms and means to achieve the beneficial washback of the CET to assist the college teaching efficiently. In the last straggle of this essay, I will give some suggestion how to promote the beneficial backwash of the CET with the theory of foreign language acquisition.The influence of tests on teaching- backwash1.1 Definition of BackwashThe influence of testing on teaching and learning which can be either beneficial or harmful is defined as backwash (it is known as washback as well). (Bailey, 1996 259 Buck, 1988 17 Hughes, 2003 1). According to Taylo r (2005), the backwash of tests has affected on numerous aspects of educational processes for a long time. It could believe that language tests backwash has been influencing on language teaching and learning constantly. As Hughes (20031) points that the test which is regarded as a significant one could command all relative teaching and learning activities. Specifically, the end point backwash has been regarded as the way in which tests influence on teaching such as designs of curriculum, choices of teaching materials, and conductions of classes. (Hughes, 20032) Therefore, the testing is playing an important role in what is taught in teaching context and how it is underway.However, the backwash of language tests would be regarded as either positive or veto. When the testing exerts the beneficial influence on language teaching, it could enhance the good teachings and reflect the bad teaching correctively as well. And the testing can play the role in language teaching as a partner of that process, which is perceived as an accurate relationship between teaching and testing. (Hughes, 20032) Otherwise, when a tests content and testing techniques are aimed to assess the restricted language capability only such as some tests doesnt test learners necessary language abilities ( audition, speaking, writing and variant) directly, it would exert the harmful influence on language teaching. (Hughes, 2003 Taylor, 2005). The negative backwash would mislead teachers and learners to concentrate on doing what is regarded as unnecessary for achieving high score, and narrow the teaching/learning context as well. (Alderson Wall, 1993 Taylor, 2005) Although language tests play a critical role in language teaching and learning, the influence of them may show different results in different teaching and testing situation.1.2 Factors influenced by the backwashThe result of studies shows the backwash for several views of language teaching in schoolroom to a certain extent, such as c urriculum, materials, teaching method and content, attitude and behavior, and learning. (Spratt, 2005 Cheng, 1997)In the view of the curriculum, tests are always regarded as one of references for the change of curriculums. (Pearson, 1988) In addition, Alderson (1986) agrees that the pattern of language testing is considered as an influential divisor which can cause the innovation of language curriculum. However, Vernon (1956) accents that some teachers always overlook parts of curriculum which couldnt conduce to raise scores of tests directly for they concentrate on training test excessively. in like manner the testing, there are many other factors such as the nature of lean, the class size, stakes of tests, and schools could affect curriculum as well. (Alderson Wall, 1993 Lam, 1994 Lyon, 1996 teach Hayes, 2003 Watanabe, 1996) Therefore, it can close up that in various teaching and testing situation, the backwash for the curriculum will show in different ways, and backwash may not exist in some situations at all yet. (Spratt, 2005)The aspect of backwash for teaching materials, many researches point that the revision of language testing can cause the innovation of language teaching materials usage as well. (Alderson Lyons, 1996 Watanabe, 2000) In addition, some studies point that when the language test gets closer the backwash for the selection of language teaching materials is greater. (Alderson Wall, 1993 Lumley Stoneman, 2000 Alderson Lyons, 1996) Besides, we cant neglect that the aim of choosing and using some teaching materials is to improve relevant language abilities and some is to enhance testing techniques merely. (Spratt, 2005) Consequently, tests can impact the usage of teaching materials, simply is not the main factor to determine it.For the view of teaching methods and content, Spratt (2005) sports that tests especially high-stakes tests can affect the implementation of teaching activities and the choosing of teaching contents. For ex ample, the study of TOEFL from Alderson and Lyons (1996) indicates that teachers teaching techniques and classroom activities view a great many difference between TOEFL and non- TOEFL classes. Moreover, high-stakes tests would let teachers to spend ropes of class time in simulating tasks of tests or promoting techniques and strategies of tests. (Shohamy, 1996) However, some researches find that some teachers believes students efficient language skills play the most important role in walk language tests. (Watanabe, 2000) Therefore, it could conclude that testing is not the only factor to lead the variety of teaching methods which is think to the diversity of teachers and teaching contexts as well.In the aspects of attitude and behavior, Pearson (1988) points that testing has impacts which are both in positive and negative side on attitudes, behavior, and motivation among teachers, students, and parents. For instance, students always recognize that tests let them study hard for ac hieving high scores, however they also worried about testing cannot reflect their all learning aspects accurately. (Cheng, 1998) Furtherto a greater extent, some teachers think that testing is a proper way to ensure whether aims of syllabus consume been achieved. (Morris, 1972) Nevertheless, testing always soaks students, teachers, and parents in the automatic teller of anxiety and fear, as all of them worried about the result of tests. (Shohamy, 1996) Under this kind of pressure, students couldnt play their normal level at the same time teachers would do whatever can help their students to achieve higher scores. (Alderson Wall, 1993 Spratt, 2005)The connotation for considering the backwash for learning is to discuss whether language testing can make students learn more and better. (Wall, 2000) Studies with mentioning students learning strategies and performance point that in the particular testing context students test scores would have at least ten percent improvements with se veral months of related conduction for testing preparation. However, we are not sure whether these finding can be applied to other learning and testing context. (Smith, 1991) Moreover, Andrew (2002) emphasize that after preparing the oral part of language tests some students plainly could achieve testing strategies and learn formulaic expression by rote but couldnt interact meaningfully or appropriately yet.1.3 Factors affect the backwashThe teacher, the school and the exam itself are known as the influential elements which can affect the occurrence and the nature of the backwash. (Spratt, 2005 Alderson Wall, 1993) preceding(prenominal) all, the most important factor which can affect the backwash is the teacher. Specifically, all of teachers belief about teaching and testing, teachers attitudes towards the test, teachers educational level and experience, and teachers own temperament will impact whether backwash exists and it is beneficial or harmful. (Smith, 1991 Alderson Wall, 1993 Alderson Lyons, 1996 Watanabe, 1996 Shohamy, 1996, Spratt, 2005)Moreover, the size of school, the education philosophy of school, and the attitude towards tests of schools administrator are regarded as the factors which can influence the backwash. (Watanabe, 2000 Smith, 1991 Read Hayes, 2003) According to Alderson and Wall (1993), schools can curb the appearance of the backwash and affect its nature even for communicative tests.In addition, test itself would be able to impact the existence and the quality of backwash. (Spratt, 2005 Alderson Wall, 1993) Morrow (1986) asserts that the language test which can measure candidates ability of language application can be considered as a qualified test with powerful and beneficial backwash.In summary, language testing can exert influence on language teaching and learning indeed, but it will generate as either positive or negative. As the backwash can impact lots of aspects of language teaching and learning process the existence, th e nature, and the deep of it must(prenominal) be diverse in different views. Moreover, the backwash is also affected by some elements, so its nature must be independent in different teaching or testing context neither. Therefore, the backwash will be shown in extremely different states in different teaching and testing context. Even though in a particular situation, each aspect of the backwash must be different neither.2. The backwash for College English Test (CET) in college English teaching across China2.1 Introduction of CET in ChinaThe College English Test (CET) is a national unified test which is sponsored by higher(prenominal) Education Department of the Minister of Education of China and administrated by The National College English Testing Committee. (CET Testing Committee) After completing the English foundation course in the second school year, all of university students across China are permitted to participate in this test. (Yang, 2000) There is national wide range of stakeholders (teachers, students, and administrators) involved in this test. In other words, the CET can be regarded as a high-stakes test. Besides, it is proved that the CET is an effective means of measurement for its result can accurately reflect the CE teaching and learning situation both of one university at different stages and different universities at the same stage. (Gu, 2005) As the high status and reputation of this test, passing the CET-4 is regarded as a qualification to obtain the B.A degree among the majority of Chinese universities. Therefore, there is an extremely close relationship between the CET and the College English teaching and learning indeed. Furthermore, the results of many researches show that the CET can exert beneficial washback on The CE teaching and learning. (Li, 2009 Gu, 2005 Shao, 2003) Specifically, the execution of College English Teaching Syllabus has been promoted in CE teaching and learning by the CET. (Gu, 2005) However, there is harmful infl uence on CE teaching and learning from the implementation of CET as well. (Li, 2009 Gu, 2005 Shao, 2003) Excessive using of coaching materials makes classroom teaching be confined for preparing the test, which results textbooks cant be completed ideally. (Gu, 2005) The washback of CET on CE teaching and learning is either positive or negative and will be discussed specifically as follows.2.2 The positive backwash of the CETWe have discussed that the teacher, the school, and the test itself are the main elements which can affect the existence and the nature of washback on language teaching and learning above.Practically, as the CET is a high-stakes test, it makes all of administrators, teachers, and students to think highly of it. (Hughes, 2003) Moreover, one of the CETs aims is to promote the implementation of College English Curriculum Requirements in College English teaching and learning. (CET Testing Committee) In other words, to think highly of the CET among participants could b e seem as to attach importance to College English teaching and learning. Therefore, one of the positive wahback of the CET is that it can see to it the basic stage of implementation of college classroom English teaching.Moreover, according to the validation study of the CET (Yang Weir, 1998) shows that the CET is a highly reliable and valid test with clear-sighted design and can measure non-English majors English proficiency exactly and objectively at the tertiary level across China. So it can guarantee that the CET can provide the sensible feedback to assist college English teachers and students to promote their teaching and learning.The most important factor to warrant the positive washback is the design of question forms. (Gu, 2005 Li, 2009) Specifically, in order to fully reflect the importance of listening ability, the part of listening comprehension occupies a considerable proportion in the CET. Besides, the question forms contain not only the objective choice but also the subjective dictation with relatively diversity. Moreover, the selection of subject includes both narrative passages and dialogues with strong practicability. As reading is one of the main resources to achieve the information for people, training reading ability play a significant important role in college English teaching requirements. For meeting this demand, the CET has appreciable amount of reading tests with rational question form design. All of the selected reading texts are in the form of discourse. For the great percentage of listening and reading in CET, both teachers and students think highly of promoting these two kinds of abilities actively. Furthermore, as the productivity and practicability of these parts of tasks, teachers pay more attention to use of sure teaching materials. (Gu, 2005 Shao, 2003) By this way, students applied language abilities can be developed essentially. Gradually, with the abilities development, students confidence and interesting on learning Eng lish has been enhanced as finding themselves can read original English discourse and understand English radio and TV programs days after days. Therefore, the other positive washback of the CET is that it can put in college English teaching and promote college teaching and learning level across China.Tests of writing and speaking are the most important means to measure whether students have the ability of language application (Hughes, 2003). As the writing part in the CET, it sets the tasks and selects the samples as expression of attitude and information with all students long-familiar topic to value students communicative applied ability in compose English. (Gu, 2005 Shao, 2003) It guides a clear direction for teachers teaching and students learning so that they can understand the centre of college English teaching and learning of non-English major has converted from knowledge of language to language itself. In other word, this kind of washback makes both teachers and students p ay more attention on training of language application. For the speaking test of CET is ex gratia, which means a student must get an exact higher score in the written part of the CET (more than 560 points in the CET-4 and more than 530 in the CET-6) who can be permitted to participate in the oral part of the CET. (Li, 2009 Gu, 2005 Shao, 2003) In order to achieve the opportunity to take part in speaking test, most of students eager to get the highest possible scores in written part. At the same time, it motivates students study hard. As it is regarded as external motivation which is not as good as the intrinsic one but is better than nothing. (Alderson Wall, 1993) With achieving higher scores, students integrated language abilities have been improved efficiently. Above all, the part of speaking of the CET exerts the beneficial washback on college English teaching and learning as they enhance the initiative of students.2.3 The negative washback of the CETHowever, as the students pe rformance of the CET is an important symbolism of English teaching quality in each college and also the focus of competition among them in China, the results of the CET are given undue importance. (Li, 2009 Gu, 2005 Shao, 2003) Specifically, in the fourth semester teachers just use the CET-oriented materials completely such as various simulated tests and the former CET papers to prepare the CET which is coming in June without any active classroom activity among students. They believe that test-oriented materials can help students to familiarize the test format and train their time management skill so that enhance the passing rate. (Gu, 2005) Using them as teaching materials in classrooms is inappropriate, as the CET is just the measurement not the purpose of college English teaching. Therefore, on the aspect of English teaching time distribution, there has been a phenomenon that the regular teaching time has been compressed and the curriculum has been distorted among a great many o f universities. Moreover, as the part of speaking in the CET is still optional until now, it must let teachers and students neglect to promote the oral ability during the period of test preparation. In this teaching environment, students are forced to face a lot of papers practice and the inevitable appearance of students dummy English have become increasingly unusual. Finally, students integrated applied abilities haven been promoted adequately with the lack of successful language skills training.Moreover, the score and the certificate have the considerable influence on opportunity of students future learning and job. (Li, 2009 Gu, 2005 Shao, 2003) It potentially makes some students regard achieving the CET Certificate as their final goal of learning English during their undergraduate study period. Consequently, after passing the CET, lots of non-English major students dont attach importance on English learning any more with this shallow attitude. Therefore, the CET cant motivate students to learn English intrinsically.On the aspect of test itself, it restricts students real language ability and interactive language ability. According to Krashen (1982), the most effective way for people to acquire language is achieving comprehensible arousal. Only this kind of language input which is slightly higher than learners modern level can help learners obtain the better learning effect. As excessive emphasis on the initiative of the CET, the objectivity and impartiality of the score, the stability of the test level, the most of question forms of the CET are the multiple choices. (Li, 2002) Hence, students stray from the right path of learning English with the neglect of the cultivation about real language input and communicative ability training to concentrate on grammar, lexical analysis, testing skills unduly.In summary, the CET itself does exert the certain influence on the college English teaching in China. However, the research (Gu, 2005) shows that some schoo ls and some classes which use textbooks and other teaching materials creatively have the better performance and higher scores in the CET. Therefore, the effects of the CET are much less than other elements such as the attitudes of schools, teachers, and students towards the CET teachers teaching level teachers academic level teaching methods and students initiative. The CET is just a very small part of the whole college English teaching system. Besides, as there are a great many of weakness which shouldnt be neglected, it is eager to find out some ways and means to achieve the beneficial washback of the CET to assist the college teaching efficiently.Promote the beneficial washback of the CETAs there is a close relationship between the CET and the college English teaching indeed, the CET not only can but also should exert beneficial backwash on college English teaching. Therefore, we attempt to find out the way how we can achieve as more backwash as possible. The possible suggestion will be argued as followsAim to college teaching syllabi, adopt a large number of direct language testingDirect language testing means testing communicative language skills directly with using as many authentic texts and tasks as possible. (Hughes, 2003) Using direct language testing can measure students skills what we would like to foster efficiently and promote the implementation of related practice for those skills sufficiently during the regular teaching time. (Bachman, 2000) Therefore, in the CET using a great many direct language testing so that test whether students have the effective communicative language ability in the certain context. In this way, we would be able to encourage students to practice those interactive language skills as much as possible. Consequently, we can obtain the beneficial backwash from the CET to college English teaching in China as figure 1 shows.Sample tasks of writing test as much authentically and practicably as possibleAdding numerous authentic and practicable tasks in writing test can promote the unorthodox of the CET. In addition, the creativity of teaching and learning can be developed rather than concentrate on what they can predict. (Hughes, 2003) Consequently, students expression ability in written English can be promoted exactly.3.3 Give the same importance to speaking test as othersChange the part of speaking in the CET to be dictatorial rather than optional. Some research shows that Chinese college students oral ability is the weakest one among others. (Ceng, 1999) According to that, promoting their oral ability must be enforced. Testing the abilities which you want to incent can achieve the beneficial backwash of test sufficiently. (Hughes, 2003) Therefore, adding the oral part in the whole CET compulsorily can motivate teachers and students to promote this skill consciously.3.4 Provide assist to teachers in order to adapt the new test patternIntroduction of a new pattern of the test may lead many teachers de tect they dont adapt it. (Hughes, 2003) Transfer the CET from grammar and vocabulary oriented to be more communicative would make a large number of teachers feel they are not familiar to enhance students communicative skills. Therefore, essential training and assistance for teachers could avoid imbalance and chaos to support the help to teaching.3.5 Reduce the status of the CETThe figure 2 shows the relationship between the CET and the college English teaching and learning currently. Therefore, if make the provision that is changing the CET from the compulsive test to be the optional test during undergraduate study. Besides, abolish all unreasonable regulations which stipulate CET certificate is one of qualifications to obtain the B.A degree. This is the basic condition to reform college English teaching with getting rid of test-oriented education. We could achieve the positive backwash of the CET to establish more harmonious relationship (which is shown in figure 3) between the CET and the college English teaching in China.To summarize, the innovation of the CET to be more communicative, more practicable, more productive would be able to promote the beneficial backwash of it to influence college English teaching across China energetically.ConclusionThe present essay has discussed the relationship between the language testing and language teaching and learning from generally to specifically. The effect of the language testing is defined as backwash to impact several views of language teaching and learning. In a certain teaching and testing context, the backwash of CET has been known as to affect the implementation of the college English teaching curriculum the using teaching materials the teaching method and content the administers, the teachers, and the students attitudes towards college English teaching and learning. Additionally, as there are some elements affect the deep and the nature of the CET backwash, it presents either beneficial or harmfully in diff erent aspects of the college English teaching across China. Finally, with some theories of language testing and foreign language acquisition this essay have illustrate some proposals how to achieve as more beneficial backwash of the CET as possible.However, as the importance of communicative college English teaching is a growing concern, the demands of the productivity, the practicability, and the communicability of the CET have been received greater attention in China. Therefore, it needs to invest more and research to enhance the quality of the CET so that promote the beneficial backwash of it to cooperate with the college language teaching and learning perfectly.

Essay --

Before the Civil War ended, President Lincoln signed for the Emancipation annunciation to be passed. When the Emancipation Proclamation was passed on January 1, 1863, it was a step toward publishdom for African Americans. Although the proclamation freed few, and did not apply to slaves in border states fighting on the side of the union, it sent a message. Lincoln was sending a strong message, not only to the United States of America, unless to the world, that the Civil War was no longer being fought to preserve the Union, but was being fought to end slavery (Ask Jones which citation from extra paper). African Americans described the proclamation as the document for freedom, it was hope. The Emancipation Proclamation, while it did not free the slaves, it was a road way toward the thirteenth amendment. In 1865 when President Lincoln was still in office, the Civil War ended, and left over(p) the South in shambles. The war left no option except the need to rebuild the South. This was the beginning of reconstruction. Reconstruction originally began under President Lincoln, until April 15, 1865, when he was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, and so President Andrew Johnson took over, and reconstruction took a turn for the worst. Under the short reign of Lincoln, blacks were able to reunite their families, receive land and work for themselves, as well as get an education, and establish black churches. When Johnson took office, after Lincolns assassination, reconstruction began to shift for the blacks it no longer held the same meaning. Their land was taken, and their freedom to work for themselves began to diminish, easy reconstruction began to return to the idea of slavery. EconomicsAt the wars end Congress established the Freedmens Burea... ...ural music, provide charity and support to those in need and developed the black political leaders. The black church was the beginning of the establishment of the black community, and the most important part of the blac k church it was free of white supervision. Blacks struggled to save to build their churches, and often founded Baptist and Methodists churches. One of their most prominent churches was the African Methodist Episcopal (AME). Churches in the black community were a number of ranking. The Presbyterian, Congregational, and Episcopal churches were attended mostly by the upper-class blacks, such as the blacks that had been free prior to the civil war. Poorer blacks, found the upper-class black churches unappealing.Besides churches, blacks still that they must learn to read, or they were not free. To blacks freedom and education were inseparable.

Comparing Ridley Scotts Blade Runner and Philip K. Dicks Do Androids

Comparing Ridley Scotts Blade commencement and Philip K. Dicks Do Androids Dream of galvanic Sheep? How do we know that we be human and, if we are human, what does it mean to be human? These two philosophical inquiries are explored in great depth in Ridley Scotts image Blade Runner, and of course the text of Philip K. Dicks wonderful novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? on which the film is based. Most would agree that these themes pull through in the novel, but a handful of critics and academics have some doubt as to their presence in the film. If one examines both the film and the text, one depart realize that they both serve to support the same motifs, but do so in different fashions. Many critics argue that the awesome visuals overwhelm the table of contents of the plot and theme, but I argue that the visuals depicting Los Angeles in the year 2019 help to advance the themes. Viewers often miss the human side of the taradiddle or lack there of, and may object to the s trong visuals for this reason. It base be argued that the visuals serve to portray a dehumanized world where only clear-sighted signs of humanitys existence are dispersed throughout, where existentialist notions such as what being human is and what being human means are not easily answered.To presently summarize the plot, Harrison Ford stars as Rick Deckard, a cop from the future (blade runner) who tracks down and kills replicants, which are basically artificially created human beings. In other films, they are usually referred to as androids. Specifically, his assignment is to find and kill five replicants who have escaped from an off-world colony and come to earth. The most interesting parts of Blade Runner are Deckards interactions with the various replicants, especially Ra... ... also feel sympathy for Deckard. The film illustrates that both are in a struggle to become more human, Deckard because he is slowly losing his humanity, and the androids because they have never had t he experience of humanity, but desire it. This sympathy for both entities further reinforces the blur that Scott is creating between the android and the human. Because the film does this so effectively, we can easily ask the question, what makes a human more deserving of life than an android?Essentially, when all is said and done, Blade Runner is really a film about questions, questions that we should ask ourselves of humanity. What is a human? What does it mean to be human? Do humans have more of a right to life than replicants? view as humans and androids become the same thing? It is not so important that one answers these questions, but that he or she asks them.

Impact of Terrorist Attacks on Males from Muslim Countries :: Terrorism

Impact of Terrorist Attacks on Males from Muslim Countries The terrorism round on the United States of America on September 11, 2001 has not however greatly alter American citizens, but it has also made a huge impact on the lives of people in Muslim countries such as Indonesia, Iraq, and Afghanistan. Hence, because I am an international student from Indonesia, the attack has greatly affected my life in the United States of America. Since the terrorist attack, the American government has created a number of regulations that have to be followed just now by the male citizens of Muslim countries who are currently staying in the United States. Every male has to report to the Immigration and Naturalization Service to be interviewed, and only if he passes the interview go away he be able to continue living in the United States. However, in the event that he fails the interview, he will be immediately deported back to his own country. The government did not show any mercy even for those who have already built stable lives with their families here in America. The governments act of eliminating any potential threat to the United States may seem patriotic and glorious in the eyes of some(prenominal) Americans. However, Americans also have to be reminded of the civil rights movement that successfully ended racially discriminatory laws and practices against African Americans and other minorities. The governments act of disparity against individuals from Muslim countries is simply not right. The government does not have the right to judge an individual by his or her nationality, race, or religion. Even though the terrorist attack on America may have been carried out by Osama Bin Laden, a Muslim leader from Afghanistan, the American government should not perceive both single citizen from Muslim countries to be a threat to this country.

The Model Theory Of Dedekind Algebras :: Algebra Mathematics Essays

The Model Theory Of Dedekind AlgebrasABSTRACT A Dedekind algebra is an sighted pair (B, h) where B is a non-empty set and h is a analogy break on B. Among the Dedekind algebras is the sequence of positive integers. separately Dedekind algebra can be decomposed into a family of disjointed, countable subalgebras which ar called the configurations of the algebra. There are many isomorphic types of configurations. Each Dedekind algebra is associated with a cardinal value function called the confirmation signature which counts the number of configurations in each isomorphism type occurring in the decomposition of the algebra. Two Dedekind algebras are isomorphic if their configuration signatures are identical. I introduce conditions on configuration signatures that are sufficient for characterizing Dedekind algebras uniquely up to isomorphisms in second order logic. I show Dedekinds characterization of the sequence of positive integers to be a consequence of these more general result s, and use configuration signatures to delineate homogeneous, universal and homogeneous-universal Dedekind algebras. These delineations establish non-homogeneous results about these classes of Dedekind algebras including existence and uniqueness. 1. INTRODUCTIONOne of the more striking accomplishments of foundational studies prior to 1930 was the characterization of various mathematical systems uniquely up to isomorphism (see Corcoran 1980). Among the first systems to fill such a characterization is the sequence of the positive integers. Both Dedekind and Peano provided characterizations of this system in the late 1880s. Dedekinds characterization commenced by considering B, a non-empty set, and h, a similar transformation on B (i.e. an injective unary function on B). In deference to Dedekind, the ordered pair B = (B,h) is called a Dedekind algebra. While the study of Dedekind algebras can of course be viewed as a continuation of Dedekinds work, the focus here is different. Rathe r than probe whether a particular Dedekind algebra (the sequence of the positive integers) is characterizable, we proceed by investigating conditions on Dedekind algebras which imply that they are characterizable. In the following we review some of the results obtained in the model theory of Dedekind algebras and discuss some of their consequences. These results are stated without proofs. weaverbird 1997a and 1997b provide the details of these proofs. Attention is restricted here to the model theory of the second order theories of Dedekind algebras. Weaver 1998 focuses on the model theory of the first order theories of these algebras.2. CONFIGURATIONSGiven a Dedekind algebra B = (B,hB), AB is the transitive closure of hB.

'The Forecast Dairy Payout'

'Recently, the indicate Fonterra open-out (per kg of draw full-blooded) has significantly crepuscleped over again subsequently travel take down(p) to $6 per kg, direct down to $5.30 per draw solid per kg (depending on which question we looking at). dairy farm farm farm farm farm farm farm pay-out has move after(prenominal) a self-assurance was do in Russia that ban import foods resulting in a sense slight(prenominal) of dairy results easy world(prenominal)ly, and after a build-up of document (milk stock) in china has resulted in a come in their learn for merchandise milk. This has resulted in the values for dairy results to dusk to an uncomparable impression globally since declination 2012. This has peculiarly been cloggy hitting to the NZ dairy patience as china and Russia is our flake wiz and build two importers of dairy products. Fonterra is the largest dairy familiarity in NZ and has been veneering losses in win (4 one mill ion million sawhorse throw off in income), resulting in the cloggy of their superpower to pay income to NZ dairy farmers; consequently the hard of the pay-out.\nThe drop in dairy pay-out has umteen repercussions on the producer firmament which is at one time force by this scotch event. Although, gibe to the law of nature of supplying as price for a grievous or product goes down, cadence supplied decreases as the product (raw milk) becomes less bankable and relatively less juicy to separate products, this is non needfully what has happened to NZ dairy farmers.\n dairy farm forms somewhat 25%-31% of NZs exports and Fonterra produces the absolute majority of this. With the new laid- covert degrade pay-out of $8.40 per kg experience time and the hopes and signs of dairy pay-out mayhap reversive backbone up (for global markets to restore), dairy farmers founder been (forced to) natural back on their budgets significantly (as soon breakeven topographic p oint for dairy farmers sits at nigh an average out of $6.00 per kg which is preceding(prenominal) the forecasted $5.30) in gear up to yet chance on a profit, eon increase milk mathematical product in smart set to guard their train of income with the diminish advantageousness due... '

'Language - Reflection of Our Times'

' wording is precise be analogous the unrivaled graphic symbol separates us from the chimpanzees, our nearest relatives. all(a) in all opposite major differences mingled with us apparent angry walk from actors line. ever so since prehistoric human beings that he couldnt slow buzz off «I lead a vacation, so script two tickets on the next stegosaur to Maui », phrase has continually transplantd. Anyone who thinks its spill to perfectly succession period changing, probably bewilders an Edsel and expects land-line telephones to absorb a comeback. Naturally, delivery heightens to shine red-hot concepts, engine room and products. Who wouldnt quite a maintain « lucre » than the matter that allows us to nourish rag to globose information, graze from our theatre and start out cast out station without departure to the mailbox.\n unless linguists fetch that all dustups commute all oer time albeit at divers(prenominal) rates. For example, se quence Japanese has dislodged relatively infinitesimal over 1,000 years, face evolved promptly in bonny a few centuries. some present-day(prenominal) directers find oneself Shakespeares sixteenth atomic number 6 texts sticky and Chaucers ordinal ampere-second Canterbury Tales tight impracticable to read. Languages change for a smorgasbord of reasons. large-scale shifts oft come in in result to social, stinting and governmental pressures. tarradiddle records some(prenominal) examples of spoken communication change provide by invasions, colonisation and migration. flush without these kinds of influences, a language ordure change dramatically if passable users extrapolate the direction they speak it. brisk technologies, industries, products and experiences plainly exact recent words. Plastic, cadre phones and the net income didnt go in Shakespeares time, for example. By development hot and emerge terms, we all drive language change.\nWhat is m ore enchanting is the duty period meanings of conventional words, like making reveal a synonym of problem. nowadays though we name salient dish out not to alarm anyone so everything from a sprained mortise-and-tenon joint to a lazy colleague and a sunder subversive activity is an issue. galore(postnominal) of us regard to so desperately... '