The Effects Of Mass Media On American Culture - 777 Words

Effects of Mass Media Amanda Shock Media Influences on American Culture (HUM/186) 10/19/2015 Allyson Wells Effects of Mass Media There are many different effects of mass media. Where would the world be today without mass media? The world has evolved so much. From the written era all the way to the digital era, communication has changed so much. For instance, when the radio was invented it changed the way the news was communicated and provided entertainment. The television came soon after that providing news to watch and sitcoms to laugh at. Mass media has provided so many great changes that impact our lives every day. In the past century, there have been many different developments of mass media. Starting in the 1900’s, newspapers and magazines were the main sources of communication. With these being the only way to communicate, the news came slowly and often late. In the 1940’s the radio came out. With this quick source of news, people often tuned in before and after the war for updates that were given. The radio was, by far, the quickest source of news at this time. The television came out in the 1950’s. The first televisions were in black and white. Television provided the news the same day and entertainment. People were more prone to watch the news rather than getting a newspaper. In 1962 satellites were launched into space. This provided news from around the world. Today, mass media continues to develop more and more. Cell phones used to be big andShow MoreRelatedThe Effects Of Mass Media On American Culture951 Words   |  4 PagesEffects of Mass Media Introduction Why is mass media influencing the American culture? This is what we are going to be discussing in this essay. It’s important that we understand where the media has come from and where it is now and the journey that it is taking the American culture in the last century. America has now explored what un-traditional media and it has a major impact on the culture called new media. What were the major developments in the evolution of mass media during theRead MoreThe Effect of Mass Media on American Culture614 Words   |  2 PagesMass media is communication that reaches a large audience. This includes television, advertisement, the Internet, newspapers, and so on. Mass media is a significant effect in modern culture in America. It creates ideas and sustained within society not only send ideological messages out to the public but to advertise this ideas which are tend to manipulate our mantalities. The mass media interperts the views of the majority of the people, the working class, to have their greatest influence on individualsRead MoreMass Media Enslavement and Stupidity: Effects of Media on American Culture and Communication1782 Words   |  8 PagesAlthough Americans have been concerned about the moral principles involved with mass media approaches, it hasn’t stopped our society from continually investing money and time into fueling the mass media fire. In Tom Cooper’s (2008) In Between the Summits: What Americans Think About Media Ethics, he states: While some concerns such as deception, invasion of privacy, advertising saturation, and excessive violence apply to multiple channels of communication, others are medium specific. For exampleRead MoreEssay about Impact of Mass Media on Individuals, Society, and Culture1178 Words   |  5 PagesImpact of Mass Media on Individuals, Society, and Culture Mass media, over the years, has had a profound effect on American society, on its culture, and on the individuals exposed to the media. Mass media is a form of socialization, having a long-term effect on each member of American society. While mass media targets the individual in short-term intervals, the overall influence on them has been established as the consumer moves from one impressionable age category to another. The long or short-Read MoreEssay on Mass Media Society1080 Words   |  5 PagesImpact of Mass Media on Individuals, Society, and Culture Mass media, over the years, has had a profound effect on American society, on its culture, and on the individuals exposed to the media. Mass media is a form of socialization, having a long-term effect on each member of American society. While mass media targets the individual in short-term intervals, the overall influence on them has been established as the consumer moves from one impressionable age category to another. The long or short-Read MoreMass Media and Popular Culture953 Words   |  4 PagesMass Media and Popular Culture March, 2009 Let us face the facts, mass media and popular culture need each other to coexist. Furthermore, in todays society the mass media serves the interest of popular culture. Moreover, it is the vehicle of free speech in a diverse, multicultural society. In addition, mass media refers to communication via radio, televisions, movie theaters, television, newspapers, magazines, and, etc; thereby, reaching out to the larger audience. On the contrary, popularRead MoreEssay about Mass Media and Popular Culture1491 Words   |  6 PagesMass Media and Popular Culture: Effects on the Population Mass Media and Popular Culture Mass media and popular culture go hand in hand. This paper will discuss the impact of mass media on enculturation, examine the relationships among media, advertising and the formation of normative cultural values, and discuss the impact of the internet on popular culture and the way we communicate today. Real world examples of this impact will be provided to prove our point of view and the overall effectRead MoreEssay on The Media Effects American Culture1249 Words   |  5 PagesThe media is the means of communication, as radio and television, newspapers, and magazines that reach or influence people widely. The growth of the media has spread vastly over the years. The media is also known as a â€Å"channel of mass communication.† â€Å"Mass Media incorporates all those mediums through which information is distributed to the masses. These include advertisements, magazines, newspapers, radio, television, and the Internet† (Sebastian). The media introduces many new thing s to the publicRead MoreMass Media and Popular Culture1367 Words   |  6 PagesHow has mass media a created a relationship among popular culture, mass media and different forms of dissemination? Mass media is any form of communication used to reach a large group of people. There are different types of media; examples of media are magazines, movies, television, books, recording devices, radio and the internet. As time goes on, new and improved technology is developed in the mass media industry for communicating and entertainment purposes. As mass media continues to grow andRead MoreMass Media And Its Effects On Society1633 Words   |  7 Pagesbeen ideas and mass media in which we have access to, there is small changes in which The United States as a whole has been affected. There have been many discussions on how social media has played a part on American culture as we are becoming more reliant on computers and technology as well as we have in communicating. Social media and mass media has an affect modern society as technology has grown, so will its effects on people. Mass media and social media are, one social media is where anyone

Roosevelt Essay - 728 Words

Theodore Roosevelt is said to have been one of the greatest presidents ever. Theodore Roosevelt expanded the role of the presidency into foreign affairs by using The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, this stated that the U.S. had the right to oppose European intervention in the western hemisphere and also to intervene itself in the domestic affairs of its neighbors. This was brought about when the government of Venezuela stopped paying their debts to European bankers. As a result European naval forces formed a blockade around the Venezuelan coast and began to bombard their ports. Roosevelt saw this action as a potential threat to the U.S. and threatened to use American naval power to pressure the European navy to withdraw â€Å"†¦the†¦show more content†¦Imperialists liked his policy, but there were still critics that disliked the policy and favored noninvolvement in global politics. The Square Deal came upon after Roosevelt’s first economic crisis. He demonstrated that he favored neither business or labor but insisted on a square deal for both. The strike of the anthracite coal miners was solved when he threatened to take control of the mines. The owners decided to compromise with Roosevelt and granted a 10 percent wage increase and a nine-hour workday. Voters liked the square deal so much the election of 1904 was won decisively by Roosevelt. The Panama Canal was another good thing he did while in office. Roosevelt had to get a treaty with Britain in order to begin to dig the canal without British involvement. In 1901 the Hay Pauncefote Treaty helped achieve just this. Roosevelt supported the revolt in Panama in 1903, because of this the new government of Panama signed the Hay Bunau Varilla Treaty of 1903. This treaty granted the US long-term control of a Canal Zone. The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine in 1904 was another application of the big-stick policy. Rather than let the Europeans intervene in Latin America whi ch would be a violation of the Monroe Doctrine he said that the US would intervene whenever necessary. The US sent gunboats to Latin American countries that were delinquent in paying its debts. US sailors andShow MoreRelatedTheodore Roosevelt : President Roosevelt1564 Words   |  7 Pages President Theodore Roosevelt By Ryan Baglietto  Table of Contents: 1. Presidential Facts 2. Theodore Roosevelt’s Childhood 3. Education 4. Personal Life 5. Accomplishments 6. What do I think of President Roosevelt: 7. Presidential Picture 8. Bibliography  1. Presidential Facts: My president’s name is Theodore Roosevelt. His nickname is Teddy. Did you know the Teddy Bear was named after him? President Roosevelt was in office from September 14, 1901 until March 4, 1909Read MoreRoosevelt And Roosevelt s President Essay1495 Words   |  6 PagesThroughout the beginning of the 1900’s, Roosevelt became immensely favored and adored by the majority of United States citizens. After Theodore Roosevelt served his terms of presidency from 1901-1909, he declared that he would not accept a renomination for another term. With being in control of the Republican Party and also becoming quite favored, Roosevelt was able to name who his successor would be. With having being so popular and trustworthy, Roosevelt commanded the Republican Party to stay loyalRead MoreTheodore Roosevelt And The Roosevelt Center989 Words   |  4 PagesTheodore Roosevelt during his life would spend time in North Dakota to hunt buffalo and settled in a ranch there for some years as he found a renowned interest in the area he called his â€Å"second home†. In 2005, Dickinson State University (DSU) began to explore the legacy of the 26th President as a tribute to his historical legacy and admiration to the territory that the university resides today. As a result the Theodore Roosevelt Center was founded in 2007 at the university. In essence the TheodoreRead MoreThe Achievements Of Theodore Roosevelt1590 Words   |  7 Pagespeople in American history is Theodore Roosevelt. He is considered to be one of the most efficient and successful presidents to ever hold office. The achievements that he accomplished during his life will most likely never be equaled. He went from being a husband and father to being a soldier to becoming president of the United States. Along with contributing to his time period, his legacy continued and went on to influence other great presidents. Roosevelt also helped society in general and pushedRead MoreRoosevelt Corollary Of T he Doctrine1495 Words   |  6 PagesRoosevelt Corollary to Monroe Doctrine Theodore Roosevelt, often referred to as Teddy was an American statesman, author, explorer, soldier, naturalist, and reformer who served as the 26th President of the United States from 1901 to 1909. Born October twenty-seventh, 1858, Manhattan, New York City and died January 6, 1919 Cove Neck, NY. The second of four children, His father, Theodore, Sr., was a well-to-do businessman and philanthropist. His mother, Martha Mittie Roosevelt, was a SouthernerRead MoreThe Legacy Of Theodore Roosevelt1876 Words   |  8 Pages Theodore Roosevelt, born on October 27, 1858 on East 20th Street in New York City, New York, was a powerful man who had many powerful influences. He was a leader to a country, a son of two parents, a brother to three siblings, a husband to a wife, and father to six children. But before Mr.Roosevelt did have the chance to make his influences, he had his childhood first. As said before, Roosevelt was the son of two parents, Martha and Theodore Roosevelt, in fact, Theodore Jr. was actually calledRead MoreTheodore Roosevelt Essay1499 Words   |  6 Pages nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;During the early 1900’s the president of the United States of America was a man called Theodore Roosevelt. Although he began his term as president with the death of President McKinley, his period in the White House turned out to be one of the most progressive periods in American history. His progressive policies influenced the direction that the country would take in the twentieth century. In the following paper I will explain several of Theodore Roosevelt’s progressiveRead MoreEleanor Roosevelt2144 Words   |  9 PagesHernandez 1 Hernandez 1 On October 11, 1884, a remarkable individual whom would later be considered one of the world’s most influential women was born. Eleanor Roosevelt was born in New York to her parents Anna Hall Roosevelt and Elliot Roosevelt. With her blue eyes and light brown hair, she would warm the heart of every individual she came across. She grew to be five feet and eleven inches, which to this day makes her the tallest first lady. With regardsRead MoreThe Legacy Of Theodore Roosevelt1001 Words   |  5 PagesTheodore roosevelt, I can honestly say was one of the the most influential and active presidents we ve ever been graced to have. Being the voice of the people, aided our country in environmental concerns, Excelling in foreign policies and winning the nobel peace prize. He had an incredibly fulfilling and prosperous life. Theodore Roosevelt was one of most dynamic Presidents in all of American history. Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27, 1858, in New York City, to Theodore Roosevelt, andRead MoreRoosevelt Corollary Of The Doctrine1245 Words   |  5 PagesRoosevelt Corollary to Monroe Doctrine Theodore Roosevelt, often referred to as â€Å"Teedie† (Watts 1) was an American statesman, explorer, naturalist, author, soldier, and a reformer who served as the twenty-sixth President of the United states from 1901 to 1909. Roosevelt was born October twenty-seventh, 1858 in Manhattan, New York City and died January sixth 1919 Cove Neck, NY. (Watts 1) He was the second of four children, his father, Theodore Sr. was a businessman and philanthropist. His mother

The History of the Disney Company Free Essays

The Disney company was founded by Walt Disney and his brother Roy as Walt Disney Productions in 1929 to incorporate their cartoon animation studio. Now it is the largest media and entertainment conglomerate in the world in terms of revenue, and the company is best known for the products of its film studio. The company also owns and operates the ABC broadcast television network; cable television networks such as Disney Channel, ESPN, and ABC Family; publishing, merchandising, and theatre divisions; and owns and licenses 11 theme parks around the world. We will write a custom essay sample on The History of the Disney Company or any similar topic only for you Order Now Introduction for the serviceThe China vacation package first start in 1st april 2008, China is the second country which have†Disney Adventures† in the Asia Pacific region after Australia. The main aid is to show the Chinese culture and traditions. In the 13-day tour, with the Disney’s guides guided to Beijing, Chengdu, Shanghai, Guilin and Hong Kong, climb the great wall, visit the li river, and the wild giant panda protection base in Sichuan province, learn about Chinese calligraphy and kite-making, and even drawing Beijing opera mask personally, visit the Imperial Palace in the Forbidden City and cruise past the breathtaking scenery of Guilin.Cap off the trip with a VIP visit to Hong Kong Disneyland ® Resort. The Specific Trip Highlights for China family vacation from Adventures by Disney threads across cities starting in Beijing and continuing to Chengdu, Guilin and Shanghai before winding up in Hong Kong. SITUATION ANALYSIS The Walt Disney Company is in the entertainment industry. This is a very simple way of saying something much more complicated: The Walt Disney Company is in business to produce entertaining theatrical productions that re family oriented and family friendly; they are in business to create products and toys that will promote their theatrical productions that are both entertaining and safe for children, and also stimulating enough to attract new customers; they are in business to entertain families with children who are looking for a fun, interactive and safe vacation spot both with resorts and parks, and also cruise lines; and finally they are in the business in keeping their name reputable and substantial in a growing business.The service we choose is the Disney China Vacation Package, it is a journey of experience and feel the beauty of the nature and culture, not just a tangible product. The reasons for choosing it include that, as a long distance vication (Travel abroad), offered by a famous company, the service quality is high level. As an example, Each tourists group to China will be given two guides, one from the Disney Company headquarters, and another chinese guide from Hong Kong disneyland, to make sure that the tourists can receive best guide service.So, it is considered as a high involvement purchase. High involvement purchase. Are the purchase closely tied to consumers’ ego and self image, at the same time, it also include some risk like finicial, social or personal risk. So, a Vacation Package service can improve self image with experience nature and humanities environment. The risk primarily come from the finicial, which mean that after a high payment for the service, no one can ensure that all the tourists will interested in and satisfy with the coming journey.So, the consumers will consider a lot of things to decide whether to purchase this or not. Market analysis The target market of the Disney China Vacation Package are the normal America families which are interested in China. As we have mentined, the aim for this journey is to experience Chinese culture and tradition, the tourists go to china to enjoy a cultural tour. For normal americans, it is a good chance to know about chinese culture directly, for the family parents, it is also a great chance to let their children experience the wonderful culture outside their own country.It is a journey to visit, at the same time, it is also a journey to study, to experience. As the result, even China Travel Package is expensive(compare to other package), with the introduction of relevant advertisements in 2008, it received warm response from American families immediately. In erery period of the year of 2008, the tourists team are almost all full. So, the company should keep focusing on the family target market, do research and get information on it, it may bring a great sales increase. Customer analysisThis is normally for the young generation which want to know and experience the Chinese culture, these friends have a firm relationship and can take care of each other, so this trip is not only a tour but also a good chance for them to experience more of their friendship. Normally, they payer should be the ones who are in working now, they can bring their parents or their baby as a family tour team. For the old generation can achieve the dream which they want to do but had no time till now. For the young generation can have the experience of a foreign tou r/culture which is a gift their family can give them now. Competitor analysisDisney Company and the theme park industry there are many competitors, such as Paramount Parks, Universal Studios and Six Flags Theme Parks, as mentioned earlier. However, there are many other less visible competitors that one might not naturally think of when assessing the competitive market in which Disney deals. For example, there are hundreds of water parks and various funplexes that can also be considered as cheaper or more valuable competition for Disney. Competition, in any form, can diminish Disney’s market share in the entertainment industry Company analysis The Disney is a world wide Company is in the entertainment industry.This s a very simple way of saying something much more complicated: The Disney Company is in business to produce entertaining theatrical productions that are family oriented and family friendly; they are in business to create products and toys that will promote their theatrical productions that are both entertaining and safe fo r children, and also stimulating enough to attract new customers; they are in business to entertain families with children who are looking for a fun, interactive and safe vacation spot both with resorts and parks, and also cruise lines; and finally they are in the business in keeping their name reputable and substantial in a growing business. SWOT analysis How to cite The History of the Disney Company, Papers

Economics Proposal To Cut The Budget Deficit Essay Example For Students

Economics: Proposal To Cut The Budget Deficit Essay The federal budget is an explosive problem which if not acted uponsoon, threatens to swallow the entire domestic income. I have placedtogether several decisions that create a minimal impact upon the economy,yet reduce the federal budget deficit by 2/3s. The aggregate demand curveultimately will shift, not greatly, to the right as the economy is slightlyincreased throughout my proposal. To accomplish this feat, the plan to be presented to Congress inJanuary will consist of many revenue increases and some spending increasesand decreases. This plan will not decrease the entire deficit to apositive budget because the impacts of that kind of change could severlycripple the economy. Taxes must be raised, yet to offset the taxes, somespending must be spent to help profit the economy. My plan is similar tothe Gramm-Rudman Hollings Law, except these cuts are possible, but it willtake more than 1 term. The taxing that I plan would move the aggregate demand curve to theleft, as money is taken away from the people. Imposing the Ad Valorem taxon energy, increasing the average residential bills by $50 a year wouldreduce the deficit by 25 billion, and shrink the economy by 4 billion. Making all entitlements subject to income tax would reduce the deficit by74 billion and shrink the economy by 24.66 billion. Basing Medicarepayments on cost of managed care plans would reduce the deficit by 70billion, and shrink the economy by 23.33 billion. Converting Medicaid to ablock grant in states would reduce the deficit by 54 billion, yet decreasethe economy. These tax increases will reduce the deficit by 223 billion,and through the net tax multiplier (mpc/1-mpc while mpc = .25) the economywill shrink at around 70 billion. My increased spending shall position the aggregate demand curve back toits origional place then move it a tiny fraction to the right, as marginalgrowth would be accomplished through this entire plan. Increasing defenses3% in 2002 would increase the deficit by 44 billion, and expand the economy58.66 billion. Increasing domestic discretionary spending would increasethe deficit by 9 billion, and expand the economy by 12 billion. Thespending revenues would raise the deficit by 53 billion, and through theexpenditure multiplier (1/1-mpc), will expand the economy by 70.66 billion. In retrospect, this plan will reduce the deficit by 170 billion andincrease the economy by .66 billion. My political cost throughout thisprocess would rise to 340, making it difficult to be reelected, but once myplan is placed into work, it will reduce the deficit, and keep the economystable.

U.S Involvement In The Vietnam War Essays - Vietnam War,

U.S Involvement in the Vietnam War "No new taxes." This is a quote that most all of us remember from the 1992 presidential election. Along with it we remember that there were new taxes during that presidents term in office. There are a myriad of promises made and things done in a presidential election year that have questionable motives as to whether they are done in the best interest of the people or in the interests of the presidential candidate. These hidden interests are one of the biggest problems with the political aspects of government in modern society. One of the prime examples of this is the Vietnam War. Although South Vietnam asked for our help, which we had previously promised, the entire conflict was managed in order to meet personal political agendas and to remain politically correct in the world's eyes rather than to bring a quick and decisive end to the conflict. This can be seen in the selective bombing of Hanoi throughout the course of the Vietnam War. Politically this strategy looked very good. However, militarily it was ludicrous. War is the one arena in which politicians have no place. War is the military's sole purpose. Therefore, the U. S. Military should be allowed to conduct any war, conflict, or police action that it has been committed to without political interference or control because of the problems and hidden interests which are always present when dealing with polit United States involvement in the Vietnam War actually began in 1950 when the U. S. began to subsidize the French Army in South Vietnam. This involvement continued to escalate throughout the 1950's and into the early 1960's. On August 4, 1964 the Gulf of Tonkin incident occurred in which American Naval Vessels in South Vietnamese waters were fired upon by North Vietnam. On August 5, 1964 President Johnson requested a resolution expressing the determination of the United Sates in supporting freedom and in protecting peace in southeast Asia ( Johnson ). On August 7, 1964, in response to the presidential request, Congress authorized President Johnson to take all necessary measures to repel any attack and to prevent aggression against the U. S. in southeast Asia ( United States ). The selective bombing of North Vietnam began immediately in response to this resolution. In March of the following year U. S. troops began to arrive. Although the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution specifically stated that we had no military, political, or territorial ambitions in southeast Asia, the interests back home were quite a different story ( Johnson ). The political involvement in Vietnam was about much more than just promised aid to a weak country in order to prevent the spread of communism. It was about money. After all, wars require equipment, guns, tools and machinery. Most of which was produced in the United States. It was about proving America's commitment to stop communism. Or rather to confine communism in its present boundaries But most of all it was about politics. The presidential political involvement in Vietnam had little to do with Vietnam at all. It was about China for Eisenhower, about Russia for Kennedy, about Washington D.C. for Johnson, and about himself for Nixon ( Post ). The last two of which were the major players in America's involvement in regards to U. S. Troops being used ( Wittman ). The military involvement in Vietnam is directly related to the political management of the military throughout the war. The military controlled by the politicians. The micro management of the military by the White House for political gain is the primary reason for both the length and cost, both monetary and human, of the Vietnam War ( Pelland ). One of the largest problems was the lack of a clear objective in the war and the support to accomplish it. The predominant military opinion of the military's role in Vietnam in respect to the political involvement is seen in the following quote by General Colin Powell, "If you're going to put into something then you owe the armed forces, you owe the American People, you owe just you're own desire to succeed, a clear statement of what political objective you're trying to achieve and then you put the sufficient force to that objective so that you know when you've accomplished it." The politicians dictated the war in Vietnam, it was a limited war, the military was never allowed to fight the war in the manner that they thought that they needed to in order to win it ( Baker ). To conclude on the Vietnam War, the political management of the war made

The Political Economy and International Relations Policy Essays

The Political Economy and International Relations Policy Essays The Political Economy and International Relations Policy Essay The Political Economy and International Relations Policy Essay Key Words exchange rates, currency policy, monetary policy, international capital mobility, monetary regimes n Abstract The structure of international monetary relations has gained increasing prominence over the past two decades. Both national exchange rate policy and the character of the international monetary system require explanation. At the national level, the choice of exchange rate regime and the desired level of the exchange rate involve distributionally relevant tradeoffs. Interest group and partisan pressures, the structure of political institutions, and the electoral incentives of politicians therefore nfluence exchange rate regime and level decisions. At the international level, the character of the international monetary system depends on strategic interaction among governments, driven by their national concerns and constrained by the international environment. A global or regional fixed-rate currency regime, in particular, requires at least coordination and often explicit cooperation among national governments. INTRODUCTION The study of international monetary relations was long the domain of economists and a few lonely political scientists. It was routinely argued that, unlike international rade, debt, or foreign investment, exchange rates and related external monetary policies were too technical, and too remote from the concerns of either the mass public or special interests, to warrant direct attention from political economists (Gowa 1988). This was never really accurate, as demonstrated historically by the turbulent politics of the gold standard and more recently by the attention paid to currency policy in small, open economies such as those of Northern Europe and the developing world. But the tedious predictability of currency values under the BrettonWoods system lulled most scholars into inattention (exceptions include Cooper 1968, Kindleberger 1970, Strange 1971 , Cohen 1977, Odell 1982, and Gowa 1983). The collapse of BrettonWoods increased the interest of political scientists in the issue, and in the 1980s, international monetary affairs took so prominent a place in domestic and international politics as to warrant widespread scholarly attention. The 50% real appreciation of the US dollar and the domestic and international firestorm of concern it prompted, dramatic currency collapses in many heavily indebted developing countries, and the controversial attempts to fix European exchange rates ll drew researchers toward the topic. Since 1990, international monetary relations have become extremely prominent in practice, and the study of their political economy has accordingly increased in importance. Exchange rate policies have been at the center of what are arguably the two most striking recent developments in the international economy: the creation of a single European currency and the waves of currency crises that swept through Asia, Latin America, and Russia between 1994 and 1999. Although most research on the political economy of international monetary relations pproaches, analytical arguments, and empirical conclusions. We summarize this work without attempting to cover exhaustively a complex and rapidly growing literature. In this section, we outline the analytical problem, delineating the range of outcomes in need of explanation. The next section focuses on one set of things to be explained, the policy choices of national governments, surveying work on the domestic political economy of exchange rate choice. The third section looks at the second set of things to be explained, the rise and evolution of regional and global exchange rate institutions. Two interrelated sets of international monetary phenomena require explanation. The first is national: the policy of particular governments towards their exchange rates. The second is global: the character of the international monetary system. These two interact in important ways. National policy choices, especially of large countries, have a powerful impact on the nature of the international monetary system. The United Kingdom and the United States were essentially the creators of the classical gold standard and the BrettonWoods monetary order, respectively, and their decisions to ithdraw from these systems effectively ended them. By the same token, the global monetary regime exercises a powerful influence on national policy choice. A small country, such as Belgium or Costa Rica, is much more likely to fix its exchange rate† to gold before 1914, to the dollar or some other currency since 1945†when most of its neighbors have done so. The national and the international interact in complex ways, but for ease of analysis it is useful to look at separate dependent variables: the national policy choices of governments and the character of the international monetary system. National Exchange Rate Policy Each national government must decide whether to fix its currency†to the dollar, to another national currency, or to gold (in earlier periods)†or to allow it to float. If it chooses to let its currency float, it must decide whether it intends to let currency markets freely set the currencys value or whether it intends to target a particular range of exchange rates. If the latter, the government needs to determine the desired level of the currencys value†whether, generally speaking, it prefers the exchange rate to be strong (relatively appreciated) or weak (relatively depreciated). In specific instances, governments may be faced with more immediate choices, such as whether to defend or devalue a currency under attack. There are, roughly speaking, two kinds of national decisions to be made. One concerns the regime under which the currency is managed (fixed or floating, for example), and the other concerns the level of the currency (strong or weak). These choices have significant economic and political implications, and there is no reigning economic argument as to the optimal national exchange rate policy. In this, international monetary policy differs from trade policy. There are powerful economic arguments for the welfare superiority of free trade, and free trade can usefully be considered a baseline from which national policies deviate, with the distance from free trade a measure worth explaining. In currency policy, there is no clear economic- efficiency argument for or against any particular level of the real exchange rate. A strong (appreciated) currency is one that is valuable relative to others; this gives subjects national producers of tradable products (goods and services that enter into international trade) to more foreign competition, for the strong currency makes oreign products relatively cheaper. Although politicians certainly care about these effects†weighing the positive effects of increased mass incomes versus the negative effects of increased foreign competition†there is no purely economic reason to opt for one or the other. There is a reigning economic approach to currency unions (and, somewhat by extension, to fixed exchange rates), drawn from the literature on optimal currency areas. But this literature is by no means conclusive, so even here there are few purely economic factors that could explain national government policy. This means that national exchange rate policy must be made with an eye toward its political implications, since the tradeoffs governments must weigh are largely among values given different importance by different sociopolitical actors. Governments must evaluate the relative importance of the purchasing power of consumers, the competitiveness of producers of tradable products, and the stability of nominal macroeconomic variables. Below we survey the political considerations that affect policy, but first we describe the international level of analysis in international monetary affairs. InternationalMonetary Systems There are effectively two ideal types of international monetary regime, with actual systems tending toward one or the other. One is a fixed-rate system, in which national currencies are tied to each other at a publicly announced (often legally established) parity. Some fixed-rate systems involve a common link to a commodity such as gold or silver; others use a peg to a national currency such as the US dollar. The other ideal-typical monetary regime is is a free-floating system, in which national currency values vary according to market conditions and national macroeconomic policies. There are many potential gradations between these extremes. In the past 1 50 years, the world has experienced three broadly defined international monetary orders. For about 50 years before World War l, and again in substantially modified form in the 1920s, most of the worlds major nations were on the classical gold standard, a quintessential fixed-rate system. Under the gold standard, national governments announced a fixed gold value for their currencies and committed themselves to exchange gold for currency at this rate. From the late 1940s until the early 1970s, the capitalist world was organized into the BrettonWoods monetaryorder, a modified fixed-ratesystem. Under BrettonWoods, national currencies were fixed to the US dollar and the US dollar was fixed to gold. However, national governments could and did change their exchange rates in unusual circumstances, so that currencies were not as firmly fixed as under the classical gold standard. From 1973 until the present, and briefly in the 1930s, the reigning order has been one in which the largest countries had more or less freely floating national currencies with no nominal anchor, whereas smaller countries tended either to fix against one of the major currencies or to allow their currencies to float with varying degrees of overnment management. Monetary regimes can be regional as well as global. Within the international free-for- all that has prevailed since 1973, a number of regional fixed-rate systems have currencies of relatively small countries to the currency of a larger nation; for instance, the CFA (African Financial Community) franc zone ties the currencies of 12 African countries to each other and to the French franc (and now to the euro). Several countries in Latin America and the Caribbean have similarly tied their currencies to the US dollar, and others are considering this link. Another type of regional fixed-rate system involves the linking of a number of regional currencies to one another, often as a step toward adoption of a common currency. This has been the case with European monetary integration, which began with a limited regional agreement, evolved into something like a Deutsche mark link, and eventually became a monetary union with a single currency and a common European central bank. Countries in the Eastern Caribbean and southern Africa have also developed monetary unions. Our dependent variables, then, are (a) the national exchange rate policies of articular national governments, especially their choice of the level and regime of their currencies; and (b) the international monetary regime, especially the degree to which currencies are fixed against one another. To be sure, these two dependent variables are Jointly determined. National policy choices depend on the character of the international monetary system, and the evolution of global monetary relations is powerfully affected by the decisions of the major trading and investing nations. By the same token, international monetary relations interact with other economic policies. Currency misalignments have often led to protectionist pressures and even trade wars, Just as the evolution of trade relations affects exchange rate policy choices. Policies toward international financial and investment flows are similarly affected by, and affect, exchange rate movements. These complex interactive effects are important, but we do not know how to think about them in an integrated and systematic way. This essay focuses on the political economy of international monetary policy in and of itself, emphasizing potential answers to our two more narrowly defined explanatory questions. Cognate literatures on the political economy of other important international economic policies are useful to the analysis of international monetary policy. Analyses of international trade and investment begin with a prior notion of the distributional interests at stake†factoral, sectoral, and firm-specific†derived either from theory or from empirical investigation. They then explore how these interests are aggregated and mediated by such sociopolitical institutions as labor unions and business associations, political parties, electoral systems, legislatures, and ureaucracies. Finally, they explore the interactions between these nationally derived policies and those of other countries, especially in contexts in which interstate strategic interaction is likely to be important, such as where national government policies depend on the responses of other governments. The emerging structure of analysis and explanation of international monetary and financial politics follows this pattern. In the next section, we summarize the domestic level of analysis, especially how interests and institutions interact in the formation of national policy.

Patient and staff protection in different radiology modalities Dissertation

Patient and staff protection in different radiology modalities - Dissertation Example The study concludes by offering recommendations to be applied by Jaber Al Ahmed Armed Forces Hospital in the efforts of advancing its practices involving radiology. Summary 1: An Examination of Factors Related To Radiation Protection Practices Introduction This study was carried out by Slechta & Reagan (2008) with an objective of advancing the understanding factors connected to knowledge of as well as adherence to safety practices in radiation in which they studied four independent variables. These included initial education for the profession, participation in continuing education, the years of experience practicing in profession and nature of the work site. The study was aimed at advancing radiologic sciences education and practice while improving the safety practice in radiology. The study therefore sought to assess the knowledge of and compliance with protection practices in radiation in which independent variables and dependent variables were involved. The null hypothesis held i n this study was that the independent variables were not significantly relatable to either of the dependent variables. The study commenced with a literature review of materials related with practice compliance and radiographers’ education of five different indices of health and medicine. Notably, the literature reviewed indicated that certification in the 1970’s demanded radiation protection practices (Slechta & Reagan, 2008). The literatures also revealed trends of relationship between practicing years and radiation protection practice. A need for continued safety education was also noted in the literature reviewed in this study as well as efforts for ensuring continued education for the practitioners in radiography safety. Methodology The study involved a survey of 2000 certified radiologic technologists through questionnaires sent t o each of them and allowed for a period of one month to fill and return. The sample was obtained from the database of the American Regi stry of Radiologic Technologists (ARRT). The large sample (N = 2000) was selected through a simple random sampling of registrants’ summary data and characteristics. The large sample selected allowed for a high confidence level as well as a small margin error as respondent for mailing technique was expected to be low. Questionnaire Design The questionnaire s sent to the sampled practitioners had 32 items to solicit information on basic demography, the 4 independent variables, and the 2 dependent variables (knowledge of and compliance with). Of the 32 items, 10 items sought for respondent’s characteristics information on gender, age, year of experience, years certified, professional practice primary area, work site type, initial education in radiologic technology, and continuing education participation over the past year. A composite score was calculated sing knowledge of safety practice assessed by 3 multipart items. At the same time compliance was assessed with 19 item s; 6of the items for composite score and 13 for separate evaluation. And Pre-tests were carried on 40 practitioners to determine usefulness of self-report of radiologic practices, time to complete the survey, item’s clarity assessment and development of scoring method. Results The results for respondents’ characteristics showed that, from the 2000 questionnaires sent, approximately 454 satisfied the surveys requirement. Markedly, 18% (n =